Scholarly Article- What Drives Wolves: Fear or Hunger? Humans, Diet, Climate and Wolf Activity Patterns

The scholarly article “What drives wolves: Fear or hunger? Humans, diet, climate and wolf activity patterns,” by Jorn Theuerkauf, discussed certain factors that may influence wolf behavior and activity patterns. It seems no one had previously tried to define factors that could universally affect wolf behavior, so Theuerkauf looked at and used data from eleven separate studies (ranging from Alaska to Israel) when making his analyses. This study compared the effects of seven distinct factors on wolves’ nocturnal activity and movements: (1) public road density, (2) human population density, (3) human-caused mortality, (4) proportion of domestic animals in wolf diet, (5) proportion of forest, (6) latitude and (7) mean annual temperature on nocturnal wolf activity and movements.

In the introduction, Theuerkauf mentions optimization models and the basic economic principle of maximizing benefit while minimizing costs. As man is the wolf’s only predator, it is most likely that natural selection has favored those wolves who avoid humans. It’s suggested that wolves living in open spaces would probably be more likely to hunt and move at night, as there is nothing to hide them from humans in the daylight. There is a wide variety of factors that could influence wolf behavior, and since wolves are spread over so many different climates and conditions, any of these factors could vary with location—this is why Theuerkauf reviewed and compared the results of 11 studies which were undertaken in different geographic areas. As the studies were all slightly different, Theuerkauf standardized the results so they were more easily comparable.

relaxing in the sun

While wolf activity has previously been explained by human or prey activity, Theuerkauf found some different results. It seems latitude is actually the variable that correlated most with nocturnal wolf movement, and proportion of domestic animals in the diet was most highly correlated with nocturnal activity. So these results ended up refuting the earlier suggestion that wolves may reduce daytime movements just to avoid humans. Nocturnal movements were in fact minutely correlated with human-related factors (public roads, population, and mortality), suggesting the reason may actually be the fact that wolves need shelter from sun when travelling (especially in open areas). This means that the main factor restricting the movement of wolves is daytime heat, not human interaction.  

The results of this study seem to reinforce the general tendency we have to overestimate the impact of humans on wolves, as well as underestimate the impact of heat. Theuerkauf suggests further studies of wolf activity patterns should be standardized, so that more reliable meta-analyses can be made. Studied from many different areas must be taken into account before making definite conclusions about the behavioral ecology of wolves.

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Source: 

Theuerkauf, J. (2009). What drives wolves: Fear or hunger? Humans, diet, climate and wolf

activity patterns. Ethology, 115(7), 649-657. Retrieved May 13, 2012, from the PsycINFO database.

For the full article:

http://0-web.ebscohost.com.sally.sandiego.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=6bfbf797-2a69-4d73-bb85-b2f4829972c0%40sessionmgr13&vid=5&hid=15

images:

http://philipdavis3.com/final/History.html

http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-23677831/stock-photo-grey-wolves-resting-in-the-early-morning-sun.html

http://howlingforjustice.wordpress.com/2009/10/

Predatory Behavior of Wolves

One of the most important things to know about wolves is that they are not violent creatures! Wolves only kill to eat—they will literally only kill what they need to survive. While wolves are often made out to be scary, dangerous creatures to us, they actually want nothing to do with humans most of the time. In the wild, they are shy around humans and will generally try to avoid them at all costs—sometimes even if it means abandoning a kill. Humans are actually the wolf’s only predator.

see, friendly wolf!...OK, so maybe this is a scene from
the 2003 movie Wolf Summer..but you get the point, they're not violent

A cub, being snatched up by an eagle!
A scene like this would never happen with an adult wolf.

So, wolves are at the top of the food chain. While wolf cubs sometimes become prey to large bears or birds, adult wolves have virtually no predators—top of the food chain! They eat mostly large, hoofed mammals known as ungulates, such as deer, elk, caribou, and moose. While these large mammals are their main prey source, wolves are opportunistic animals and so have also been known to eat smaller animals, like hares and beavers, and even some plants and berries occasionally.

Wolves need, on average, about three to ten pounds of meat per day. However, interestingly enough, wolves do not actually eat every day. Since hunting cannot always be successful, wolves live a “feast or famine” lifestyle. This basically means that wolves are able to eat nothing for a period of time, and then eat a lot all at one time. They can go several days without eating and then gorge on more than 20 pounds of meat when a kill is made!

by hunting in a pack, these wolves are able to
attack a huge bison!

Wolves have various hunting tactics which increase the likelihood of catching their prey. As they hunt mostly large animals, wolves will generally hunt together as a pack—this allows them to easily surround their prey, as well as ‘test’ a herd for signs of weakness. Since wolves are not naturally violent and are opportunistic creatures, they often go after vulnerable (weak, ill, very young, or very old) individuals of a herd. Wolves most often search for weaker individuals, but will also go for healthy animals—especially in circumstances where the healthy prey is at a disadvantage; for example, a deer in especially deep snow. The fact that wolves will choose to hunt vulnerable animals can actually benefit the prey population. By killing the “inferior” animals of a population, wolves are increasing the health of their prey. This also ensures that the animals able to reproduce will be healthy and strong—over many years, this selection can help the prey population become better adapted to survival. By eradicating the weak members, wolves help keep the ecosystem in balance for many other species.

two wolves, clearly killed for sport and no other reason :(

As I said before, humans are the only true predators to wolves. Wolves present virtually no danger to humans without provocation, yet we still mercilessly attack them. While many hunters poach wolves for sport or for their skins and fur, some say they kill to protect their livestock. Regardless of reasoning, killing wolves is still illegal. Wolves are not naturally aggressive creatures, and they are an essential part of keeping the eco system in balance. For more information on the prevention of wolf poaching and wolf conservation efforts, refer to our blog post called “The Conservation Status of Wolves in North America.” Stop killing these beautiful creatures!

Come back soon for more awesome info on wolves!

sources: 

http://www.wolfcountry.net/information/WolfHunting.html

http://www.defenders.org/press-release/wolf-kill-policies-illegal-groups-charge

http://www.defenders.org/press-release/wolf-kill-policies-illegal-groups-charge

images:

http://www.myspace.com/therpproject/photos/16432304#%7B%22ImageId%22%3A16432304%7D

http://coyotes-wolves-cougars.blogspot.com/2012/04/efforts-to-curb-wolf-numbers-in-yukon.html

http://www.listal.com/viewimage/969414h

http://www.inzanaoutfitters.com/wolfhunting.html

The Story of Lobo

Lobo was a wolf from Currumpaw, New Mexico who was hunted by Ernest Thompson Seton, a wolf hunter in the Southwestern U.S. during the 1890's.

During this time in the valley Lobo and his pack, co-led by his beloved mate Blanca, began eating the settlers livestock after the settlers killed or scared all of their natural prey away. Consequently, the settlers began trying to kill the wolves to save their livestock. After trying several times to kill the wolves with poisoned meat, which the clever Lobo and his pack mates ate after pulling out the poisoned pieces, the settlers turned to traps and hunting parties which also failed. Finally, the settlers put out a $1,000 bounty on Lobo's head, which attracted the bounty hunter Ernest Thompson Seton in 1893.

Seton made the journey to the canyons of New Mexico and began formulating a plan to kill the wolf. He tried to capture Lobo by using five poisoned baits, which he set out around Lobo's territory. After they disappeared Seton assumed Lobo to be dead, but later found the baits all gathered in one pile and obviously left by Lobo and his wolves. Next, after realizing Lobo to be much more clever than originally presumed, Seton bought a bunch of specialized traps to capture the witty wolf. However, again he was foiled when he failed to catch Lobo and found his tracks leading from trap to trap, exposing them all. Weeks turned to months and Seton was becoming increasingly frustrated.

Blanca, Lobo's mate

One day, while following Lobo's trail in the snow Seton realized his weakness: Lobo was ardently attached to Blanca. Seton now set his traps in attempts to catch Blanca and this time he succeeded. When he came to check the traps he found Blanca stuck and  howling with her mate Lobo guarding her side. After running Lobo off the hunters snapped Blanca's neck while he watched from a distance. Seton reported hearing Lobo's howls for days, howls that were no longer strong and defiant but rather howls that were characterized by "an unmistakable note of sorrow" and represented his impending doom.

Lobo, after his capture

Seton, although feeling guilty and having some second thoughts about the mission, continued his plan to capture and kill Lobo. Lobo, undaunted by the danger of following the humans, followed the scent of his beloved mate back to Seton's camp. Seton had set up several traps and covered them in Blanca's scent, knowing that would attract Lobo. In January of 1984 Lobo was found with all four legs captured in Seton's traps. When Seton approached him he stood up despite the pain of his injuries and howled a long howl of acceptance. Seton, now utterly connected to Lobo and his bravery and love for his mate, could not kill the amazing wolf. Seton and his men tied Lobo to a horse and carried him back to their ranch. Secured by a chain all Lobo did was stair out across the prairie to the land that had once been a home to his entire family. The next morning Seton found him dead and knew that despite his injuries he had died of a broken heart.

Touched by his experiences with Lobo and given new value of the wild Seton was forced to accept his position as a naturalist rather than a hunter. He went on to found the Woodcroft Indians (a group dedicated to preserving wildlife) and spread the story of Lobo and his mate Blanca to inspire in others a love of the wild. Seton also helped begin the Boy Scouts of America and the Leage of Woodcroft Indians came to merge with it into one group.

"Ever since Lobo, my sincerest wish has been to impress upon people that each of our native wild creatures is in itself a precious heritage that we have no right to destroy or put beyond the reach of our children" -E. T. Seton towards the end of his life

E.T. Seton

To watch Lobo's entire story click HERE for the abc video link; the video below shows the end of Lobo's life and is definite motivation to watch the entire story.

Come back soon for more awesome info on wolves!

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobo_the_King_of_Currumpaw
http://www.pineapplefish56.net/Setons_Lobo.html
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/the-wolf-that-changed-america/video-full-episode/4414/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodcraft_Indians

Wolves in Native American Tradition

For centuries, the wolf has been held in high regard by many Native American tribes. Many tribes had such respect for the wolves, they actually compared themselves to the pack, both in characteristics and lifestyle.

one of many native myths involving wolves

a chief, with a howling wolf by his side

Native Americans have often respected the wolf for its deep devotion to family. Native Americans hunted for their families and the entire tribe, just as wolves hunted for the entire pack. Wolves never kill more than necessary to survive, and neither did the tribes. Native American hunters even tried to imitate the hunting tactics of a wolf—being compared to a wolf was considered the highest form of praise for a hunter. While the Native Americans were not naturally aggressive, they would fight to the death to protect their own and their territory, just as wolves do. Some tribes even went so far as to mimic the wolves’ migration habits—if food became scarce in their home territory, tribe leaders would move the tribe to an entirely new territory.

a modern piece of  Native American
jewelry

This extreme respect also led to the Native Americans repeated use of the wolf as a symbol in religion and mythology. Many Native American religions regarded the wolves as magical creatures. Some religious beliefs say wolves were involved in the creation of the world. Several tribes also believe that wearing the skin of a wolf could possess magical powers, and increase the success of a hunt or bring a chief’s son back to life. In the Navajo tradition, members of the tribe believed donning a wolf skin allowed that person to transform into a wolf. Wolves are also featured in native jewelry as well artwork. They are generally portrayed as howling at the moon, and this image is often used in totems or amulets.

We should all take note of the Native American view on wolves, and learn to respect them for their redeeming characteristics.  

Come back soon for more awesome info on wolves!

http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/wolves_in_american_culture.html

http://www.helium.com/items/1707340-native-americans-and-wolves

http://www.indians.org/articles/timber-wolves.html

*images found on google

Welcome to My Crib: Wolf Territorial Behavior

welcome to our crib...now get out

Many animals have both a “territory” and a “home range”; a ‘territory’ being the area they will defend against other members of their species, and a ‘home range’ being the area an animal lives in, but does not defend.  Some wolves can have a home range of up to 1,000 miles! On average, it will generally be about 77 square miles. Since this is such a large area for one wolf pack to take over, several packs will often have overlapping territories.

By nature, wolves are very territorial creatures. However, studying territorial habits and behaviors in wolves is something researchers often struggle with. Research in this area would require them to observe the movement of an entire pack for an extended period of time, as well as determine how the pack may react to other wolves in its territory. Although some territories may overlap, it is uncommon for these wolf packs to ever actually come into contact. This is due to the low number of wolves in a pack, as well as their rapid style of movement. These factors are what make observing wolf territorial behavior so difficult.

more than 90% of deaths among wolves in conflicting
packs are a result of territorial issues

Several different factors determine the place and size of a pack’s territory. For example, when prey animals are abundant wolves tend to live in small, well-defined areas and will stay there year-round. On the other hand, when prey is less abundant or is more likely to migrate, a pack will have a larger territory. This explains why many packs have larger territories during the winter than the summer. Other factors that determine pack territory are the nature of the terrain, and the presence of large predators. Where there is a high density of people, wolves will tend to have smaller territories.

Wolves use several different methods to define and mark their territory. As seen in our Fun Fact post, wolves have actually been known to respond to human howls. Howling can serve as a declaration of territory, and when a wolf responds to a human it may be because the wolf hears the human howl as a “rival” individual. The most important of these methods is “scent marking.” They use urine and feces to mark their territory, and can actually distinguish the scent of their own pack-mate’s urine from an unfamiliar wolf’s. Scent marking urination, which is known as “raised leg urination” is different than a wolf’s normal urination. Normally a wolf will squat to urinate, but when scent marking it will raise one of its hind legs and squirt a small amount of urine onto a “scent post,” which is generally a raised object like a tree or rock.  

a wolf using raised leg urination to scent mark a post

Generally, only the alpha wolves (both the male and female) of the pack will mark territory. These higher ranking wolves will sometimes leave scent marks every 350 meters, which helps define the outsides of their territories. Wolves also tend to mark the same post over and over again as well.

humans' way of "leaving their mark"

Wolves will often place scent marks on places where other wolves, coyotes, foxes and other animals have left marks of urine. This is something that domestic dogs do as well, and it seems that the scent of any other animal on a spot can stimulate a wolf to add its own mark. Humans do this quite often as well, just not with urine. For example, if one person engraves their name on a tree, other people are then inclined to do this as well. It seems humans too feel the need to “add their mark” to any spot where other humans have. 

Come back soon for more awesome wolf facts!

sources:

http://www.wolfcountry.net/information/WolfPack.html

http://www.wolfworlds.com/wolf-territorial-behavior-and-dispersion.html

http://www.freewebs.com/alphawolfsabrina/theterritory.htm

image sources:

http://courses.moodleshare.com/mod/resource/view.php?id=7387

http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-51179317/stock-photo-engraved-tree-with-graffitis.html

http://www.freeforpsp.com/free-wallpaper/anilams/201011/23706.html

http://www.freeforpsp.com/free-wallpaper/anilams/201011/23706.html

WOLFMAN

Shaun Ellis is an British animal researcher whose main passion is wolves. He spent a two years living with a wild pack and has adopted a pack of abandoned North American timber wolf pups! Ellis spent a lot of time infiltrating captive packs to learn their language and behavior at Dartmoor Wildlife Park in England and at a wolf research center in Idaho. He has learned all about wolves and tried to get as much hands on experience as possible.

After learning that a wild wolf pack had moved into an area between Idaho and Canada Ellis set out to live in the wild in the hopes of befriending a wild wolf pack with little previous human experience. After months of living alone he finally met the wolves and slowly (and painfully) worked his way into their good graces. Ellis became a full pack member, living and eating with the wolves, and was even allowed to guard the newborn pups. Once, one of his pack brothers even saved his life from a grizzly bear! After two years with the pack, Ellis was forced to return home due to malnourishment from living the diet of wolves. Back home, he used all of the knowledge he gained to improve the lives of captive wolves and help increase our understand (or lack thereof) of wolves an their behavior.

 

After finding three abandoned North American timber wolf pups at near the Combe Martin Wildlife Park Ellis decided to raise them for the wild, but he decided to do this in an unconventional way – by living with the pups and pretending to be one of them! Ellis lived with his wolf pups for 18 months, teaching them all they needed to know about being a wolf and surviving in the wild. The pups names are Yana, Tamaska and Matsi and as far as I can tell Ellis was successful at raising them for the wild and they have been released.

The video below shows Shaun Ellis teaching one of his pups to howl for the first time!

Sources:

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1243709/My-life-wolf-British-naturalist-dared-infiltrate-pack-wilderness.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaun_Ellis_(wolf_researcher)

http://www.educationworld.com/a_lesson/newsforyou/pdfs/newsforyou066-download.pdf
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y1gxa-Dij3k

The Evolutionary History of Wolves

The animal that most canids are
descended from is the tomarctus.

Kingdom - Animalia 


Phylum - Chordata (animals with notochords)


Subphylum - Vertebrata (animals with a skeleton of bone or cartilage)


Class - Mammalia


Subclass - Eutheria (placental mammals)


Order - Carnivora


Family - Canidae


Genus - Canis


Grey Wolf - Canis Lupis 


Red Wolf - Canis Rufus 


Domestic Dog - Canis Familiaris

Dingo - Canis Familiaris Dingo 


Coyote - Canis Latrans

The canidae family evolutionary lineage
is represented by the color blue.

The wolf is a product of 63 million years of carnivore evolution, and is well adapted to its environment. Nearly all canids are descended from is the tomarctus, which is an animal that lived somewhere between 16-20 million years ago. The canis edwardii, which evolved in the early Pleistocene period about 1.5 million years ago, is the first canid clearly identifiable as a wolf. Some of the most recent evolutionary ancestors are the Dire Wolf (canis dirus) and a large wolf that lived throughout North America (canis ambrusteri). Some of the closest relatives of the wolf are domestic dogs, coyotes, and foxes. In the mid Pleistocene period (around eight hundred thousand years ago) the Dire wolf came about.

Within the canis genus, unfortunately the dire wolf did not survive the mass extinctions of the most recent ice age (nearly 10,000 years ago), which the gray wolf and coyote did survive. Each of these three lineages, although very close, comes from a very different evolutionary background. None of the three is the direct ancestor of the others, although they all come from the same area. The grey wolf was well was established in North America by the time the first Native American and Inuit Peoples came across the Beringia, about eighteen thousand years ago. There is some genetic evidence that the domestic dog is a descendant of the wolf, although the issue is much debated. It has even been recommended that the domestic dog be reclassified as a new subspecies of wolf, Canis lupus familiars.

Come Back Soon for More Awesome Info on Wolves!

Sources:

http://wolfevolution.webs.com/wolevo.html

http://www.wolfcountry.net/information/WolfOrigins.html 

http://www.freewebs.com/stormtrooper444/