Scholarly Article- What Drives Wolves: Fear or Hunger? Humans, Diet, Climate and Wolf Activity Patterns

The scholarly article “What drives wolves: Fear or hunger? Humans, diet, climate and wolf activity patterns,” by Jorn Theuerkauf, discussed certain factors that may influence wolf behavior and activity patterns. It seems no one had previously tried to define factors that could universally affect wolf behavior, so Theuerkauf looked at and used data from eleven separate studies (ranging from Alaska to Israel) when making his analyses. This study compared the effects of seven distinct factors on wolves’ nocturnal activity and movements: (1) public road density, (2) human population density, (3) human-caused mortality, (4) proportion of domestic animals in wolf diet, (5) proportion of forest, (6) latitude and (7) mean annual temperature on nocturnal wolf activity and movements.

In the introduction, Theuerkauf mentions optimization models and the basic economic principle of maximizing benefit while minimizing costs. As man is the wolf’s only predator, it is most likely that natural selection has favored those wolves who avoid humans. It’s suggested that wolves living in open spaces would probably be more likely to hunt and move at night, as there is nothing to hide them from humans in the daylight. There is a wide variety of factors that could influence wolf behavior, and since wolves are spread over so many different climates and conditions, any of these factors could vary with location—this is why Theuerkauf reviewed and compared the results of 11 studies which were undertaken in different geographic areas. As the studies were all slightly different, Theuerkauf standardized the results so they were more easily comparable.

relaxing in the sun

While wolf activity has previously been explained by human or prey activity, Theuerkauf found some different results. It seems latitude is actually the variable that correlated most with nocturnal wolf movement, and proportion of domestic animals in the diet was most highly correlated with nocturnal activity. So these results ended up refuting the earlier suggestion that wolves may reduce daytime movements just to avoid humans. Nocturnal movements were in fact minutely correlated with human-related factors (public roads, population, and mortality), suggesting the reason may actually be the fact that wolves need shelter from sun when travelling (especially in open areas). This means that the main factor restricting the movement of wolves is daytime heat, not human interaction.  

The results of this study seem to reinforce the general tendency we have to overestimate the impact of humans on wolves, as well as underestimate the impact of heat. Theuerkauf suggests further studies of wolf activity patterns should be standardized, so that more reliable meta-analyses can be made. Studied from many different areas must be taken into account before making definite conclusions about the behavioral ecology of wolves.

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Source: 

Theuerkauf, J. (2009). What drives wolves: Fear or hunger? Humans, diet, climate and wolf

activity patterns. Ethology, 115(7), 649-657. Retrieved May 13, 2012, from the PsycINFO database.

For the full article:

http://0-web.ebscohost.com.sally.sandiego.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=6bfbf797-2a69-4d73-bb85-b2f4829972c0%40sessionmgr13&vid=5&hid=15

images:

http://philipdavis3.com/final/History.html

http://www.shutterstock.com/pic-23677831/stock-photo-grey-wolves-resting-in-the-early-morning-sun.html

http://howlingforjustice.wordpress.com/2009/10/

Predatory Behavior of Wolves

One of the most important things to know about wolves is that they are not violent creatures! Wolves only kill to eat—they will literally only kill what they need to survive. While wolves are often made out to be scary, dangerous creatures to us, they actually want nothing to do with humans most of the time. In the wild, they are shy around humans and will generally try to avoid them at all costs—sometimes even if it means abandoning a kill. Humans are actually the wolf’s only predator.

see, friendly wolf!...OK, so maybe this is a scene from
the 2003 movie Wolf Summer..but you get the point, they're not violent

A cub, being snatched up by an eagle!
A scene like this would never happen with an adult wolf.

So, wolves are at the top of the food chain. While wolf cubs sometimes become prey to large bears or birds, adult wolves have virtually no predators—top of the food chain! They eat mostly large, hoofed mammals known as ungulates, such as deer, elk, caribou, and moose. While these large mammals are their main prey source, wolves are opportunistic animals and so have also been known to eat smaller animals, like hares and beavers, and even some plants and berries occasionally.

Wolves need, on average, about three to ten pounds of meat per day. However, interestingly enough, wolves do not actually eat every day. Since hunting cannot always be successful, wolves live a “feast or famine” lifestyle. This basically means that wolves are able to eat nothing for a period of time, and then eat a lot all at one time. They can go several days without eating and then gorge on more than 20 pounds of meat when a kill is made!

by hunting in a pack, these wolves are able to
attack a huge bison!

Wolves have various hunting tactics which increase the likelihood of catching their prey. As they hunt mostly large animals, wolves will generally hunt together as a pack—this allows them to easily surround their prey, as well as ‘test’ a herd for signs of weakness. Since wolves are not naturally violent and are opportunistic creatures, they often go after vulnerable (weak, ill, very young, or very old) individuals of a herd. Wolves most often search for weaker individuals, but will also go for healthy animals—especially in circumstances where the healthy prey is at a disadvantage; for example, a deer in especially deep snow. The fact that wolves will choose to hunt vulnerable animals can actually benefit the prey population. By killing the “inferior” animals of a population, wolves are increasing the health of their prey. This also ensures that the animals able to reproduce will be healthy and strong—over many years, this selection can help the prey population become better adapted to survival. By eradicating the weak members, wolves help keep the ecosystem in balance for many other species.

two wolves, clearly killed for sport and no other reason :(

As I said before, humans are the only true predators to wolves. Wolves present virtually no danger to humans without provocation, yet we still mercilessly attack them. While many hunters poach wolves for sport or for their skins and fur, some say they kill to protect their livestock. Regardless of reasoning, killing wolves is still illegal. Wolves are not naturally aggressive creatures, and they are an essential part of keeping the eco system in balance. For more information on the prevention of wolf poaching and wolf conservation efforts, refer to our blog post called “The Conservation Status of Wolves in North America.” Stop killing these beautiful creatures!

Come back soon for more awesome info on wolves!

sources: 

http://www.wolfcountry.net/information/WolfHunting.html

http://www.defenders.org/press-release/wolf-kill-policies-illegal-groups-charge

http://www.defenders.org/press-release/wolf-kill-policies-illegal-groups-charge

images:

http://www.myspace.com/therpproject/photos/16432304#%7B%22ImageId%22%3A16432304%7D

http://coyotes-wolves-cougars.blogspot.com/2012/04/efforts-to-curb-wolf-numbers-in-yukon.html

http://www.listal.com/viewimage/969414h

http://www.inzanaoutfitters.com/wolfhunting.html

The Story of Lobo

Lobo was a wolf from Currumpaw, New Mexico who was hunted by Ernest Thompson Seton, a wolf hunter in the Southwestern U.S. during the 1890's.

During this time in the valley Lobo and his pack, co-led by his beloved mate Blanca, began eating the settlers livestock after the settlers killed or scared all of their natural prey away. Consequently, the settlers began trying to kill the wolves to save their livestock. After trying several times to kill the wolves with poisoned meat, which the clever Lobo and his pack mates ate after pulling out the poisoned pieces, the settlers turned to traps and hunting parties which also failed. Finally, the settlers put out a $1,000 bounty on Lobo's head, which attracted the bounty hunter Ernest Thompson Seton in 1893.

Seton made the journey to the canyons of New Mexico and began formulating a plan to kill the wolf. He tried to capture Lobo by using five poisoned baits, which he set out around Lobo's territory. After they disappeared Seton assumed Lobo to be dead, but later found the baits all gathered in one pile and obviously left by Lobo and his wolves. Next, after realizing Lobo to be much more clever than originally presumed, Seton bought a bunch of specialized traps to capture the witty wolf. However, again he was foiled when he failed to catch Lobo and found his tracks leading from trap to trap, exposing them all. Weeks turned to months and Seton was becoming increasingly frustrated.

Blanca, Lobo's mate

One day, while following Lobo's trail in the snow Seton realized his weakness: Lobo was ardently attached to Blanca. Seton now set his traps in attempts to catch Blanca and this time he succeeded. When he came to check the traps he found Blanca stuck and  howling with her mate Lobo guarding her side. After running Lobo off the hunters snapped Blanca's neck while he watched from a distance. Seton reported hearing Lobo's howls for days, howls that were no longer strong and defiant but rather howls that were characterized by "an unmistakable note of sorrow" and represented his impending doom.

Lobo, after his capture

Seton, although feeling guilty and having some second thoughts about the mission, continued his plan to capture and kill Lobo. Lobo, undaunted by the danger of following the humans, followed the scent of his beloved mate back to Seton's camp. Seton had set up several traps and covered them in Blanca's scent, knowing that would attract Lobo. In January of 1984 Lobo was found with all four legs captured in Seton's traps. When Seton approached him he stood up despite the pain of his injuries and howled a long howl of acceptance. Seton, now utterly connected to Lobo and his bravery and love for his mate, could not kill the amazing wolf. Seton and his men tied Lobo to a horse and carried him back to their ranch. Secured by a chain all Lobo did was stair out across the prairie to the land that had once been a home to his entire family. The next morning Seton found him dead and knew that despite his injuries he had died of a broken heart.

Touched by his experiences with Lobo and given new value of the wild Seton was forced to accept his position as a naturalist rather than a hunter. He went on to found the Woodcroft Indians (a group dedicated to preserving wildlife) and spread the story of Lobo and his mate Blanca to inspire in others a love of the wild. Seton also helped begin the Boy Scouts of America and the Leage of Woodcroft Indians came to merge with it into one group.

"Ever since Lobo, my sincerest wish has been to impress upon people that each of our native wild creatures is in itself a precious heritage that we have no right to destroy or put beyond the reach of our children" -E. T. Seton towards the end of his life

E.T. Seton

To watch Lobo's entire story click HERE for the abc video link; the video below shows the end of Lobo's life and is definite motivation to watch the entire story.

Come back soon for more awesome info on wolves!

Sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobo_the_King_of_Currumpaw
http://www.pineapplefish56.net/Setons_Lobo.html
http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/the-wolf-that-changed-america/video-full-episode/4414/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodcraft_Indians